Effectiveness of a Country’s Educational Provision Essay Example for Free

Effectiveness of a Country’s Educational Provision Essay Introduction In the last quarter of the twentieth century, an increasing consensus developed concerning the link between economic prosperity and effectiveness of a country’s educational provision. As globalization gathered pace dramatically in the 1980’s and 199’s, this link became more overt as the comparison and competitiveness between nations inevitably increases. At the heart of the argument for the link, is the need for an educational workforce, without which a country’s economy will not keep pace.1 In the World Conference on Education For All, which assembled Jomtien, Thailand, it was recognized that the current provision of education seriously deficient and that it must be made relevant, qualitatively improve and made universally available to enable every person, child, and adult to meet the basic learning needs. These needs comprise both essential earning tools such as __________________ 1 David Middle Wood and Carlo Cardno, â€Å"Managing Teacher Performance. and the learning content (such as knowledge, skills, values and attitudes) required by human beings to be able to survive, to develop to their full capacities to live and work with dignity, to participate fully in development, to improve the quality of lives, to make informed decisions and to continue learning. 2 Education is the vital key to national development. More important is the training and development of human resources of teachers who are the frontiers of our educative pursuit. American may continue to lead the word of science and technology but its record of educating its citizens in those subjects is fairly dismal. An NSF panel has spent 128 months examining the state of Science, Mathematics,  Engineering and Technology (SME) and at the undergraduate level and reviewing hundreds of comments from academic. The overwhelming consensus is that most of the SME courses acts as filters. They screen out all but the promising students- those embarking on __________________ careers, leaving majority of the graduates with litters understanding of how science works. This worries the policy makers because many disgruntled students become teachers with little enthusiasm for the subject perpetuating a cycle of scientific and technological.4 Ana Marie Pamintuan, in her column entitled â€Å"Sketches†, in the December 12, 2000 issue of the Philippines Start stated: â€Å"In a season of bad news, there was one item I found particularly depressing. Filipino first year high school students ranked 36th among 38 countries in the Third International Mathematics and Science Studies (TIMSS). According to result, in the latest TIMSS, Japan ran fifth in Mathematics and fourth in Science. It can be expected that many people will really blame the education system for the Filipino students’ dismal performance. Although the schools along with the curriculum, teacher, supervisor, administrators and other elements that comprise the input components of the school as a social system, should take part of the blame. 5 __________________ 4 National Science Foundation, 1999). 5 Aquino, G. Effective Teaching. EDCOM reports that teacher is poorly trained. Many teachers at all levels do not have the optimum qualification for teaching. The proportion of high school teachers of science and mathematics, for example, do not have even  the minimal preparation for the teaching ranges from 54.6 percent to 5 percent. IN the 1991 DOST test given to both teachers and students in first year of the Second Education Program (SEDP), the total mean percentage score (54.08) of the first year high school teachers was only 8.79 points higher than those of the students (42.29). This deplorable performance can be traced to poor teacher training and the low quality of students enrolled in the teacher training.6 To further upgrade the standard of science education in the Philippines, the Department of science and Technology (DOST), University of the Philippines Science and Mathematics Education (UP-SMED) now National Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (NISMED), the Department of Education (DepEd) and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) have launched a joint project, the purpose of which is to __________________ 6 (EDOM: 1995). develop human resources which would ultimately enhance and upgrade the capabilities of science and mathematics teachers. The core program was the development of thinking skills through practical work and laboratory experiment.7 These are challenging times for the country’s educational system Cooperative efforts at all levels of instruction are directed towards common goal to improve the quality of education. Much more evident are such efforts aimed at reform in Science Education. Varied approaches and techniques have been pioneered to make classroom filled with fruitful investigations to uncover new and useful informations. A great variety of instructional materials and facts intended for daily classroom instruction have been assembled utilizing the indigenous resources of the community. Innovative procedures of presenting learning tasks have been tried to make every teaching-learning situation, encounter more exciting and hallenging.8 Of the 50 schools tested, ___________________  it was revealed what students from 20 schools did not master the topic taught, 27 schools nearing mastery, and only 1 school reported mastery level.9 The low performance of students in science also became the justification for the formulation and launching of the Science and Technology Education Plan (STEP) with Project RISE (Rescue Initiative for Science Education) as one of its project under the manpower development component. One of the major problems cited in the Accomplishment Report prepared by STEP stated, â€Å"every little was done about following up the trainees on in their use of their acquired skills.10  The problem reported b the STEP, prompted the researcher, being one of the trainors of the program, Project RISE, at the Regional Science and Teaching Center (RSTC-UEP) to assess the accomplishment of Project RISE, as to whether it achieved the goal and objectives set for – the training of science teachers to ___________________ improve their teaching competencies and raise the performance levels of the students in General Science. Statement of the Problem This study will try to assess the effectiveness of Project RISE in the Secondary Schools in the Division of Northern Samar, using the DOST-SET Monitoring and Evaluation Forms from its implantation in 1998. Specifically, this study will try to answer at the following questions. 1. What is the extent of accomplishment of Project RISE in terms of: 1. Objective of the program 2. Course content 3. Participants’ profile 4. Trainers profile 2. What is the status of the processing variables such as the following: 1. Teachers 1. Attitude towards teaching General Science 2. Content knowledge and laboratory skills 3. Classroom management 4. Time management 5. Teaching strategies 6. Skills in the utilization of instructional material 7. Skills maintaining classroom discussion 8. Skills in motivating 2. Administrators 1. Administrative support 3. Student 1. Attitudes towards General Science 3. What is the status of Project RISE on the following: 1. Teaching competencies of the teacher-participants as observed and evaluated by the principal. 2. Teacher’s perception on how the training improved their competencies. 3. Student’s performance in General Science/ Theoretical Framework The framework for the evaluation of Project RISE in the Division of Northern Samar particularly in General Science, will make use of the system theory propounded by Millilin. System theory engages a process of examining a school system or educational system (for a program or project), not by piecemeal approach where every element of the system stand independent of the others, but as an organic group of elements, as a system with interaction subsystems inside the school system (social, economic, cultural, political and technological), a system that contributes to society through its outputs the same society from which the school received its inputs, and  layer on as a system that receive feedbacks from the society as to the defined â€Å"value added† through outputs.11 Moreover, that the system theory gives a holistic view of advocating its internal efficiency as well as its external productivity: it calls for an interdisciplinary approach which mean that I considers how all the various system are interrelated, and it is a _________________  self-connective approach because it considers and profits from feedbacks received from its environs.12 The appraisal process using the system theory is hinged on the input, throughput and output concepts. The input includes the setting of verifiable objectives that become standards: the throughputs refers to the actually performance of the organization that is being evaluated; the outputs include the measuring of performance against standards such as the formal type of comprehensive review. A build in feedback mechanism pinpoint the flaws or errors in program implementation. Then corrective actions for undesirable deviation from standards are formulated. The system of evaluation is cyclical in nature consistent of formulation, implementation, monitoring and feedback pointing to the continuous assessment for program revision and improvement. Whichever is pinpointed as error implementation become the focus corrective decisions and actions and for program revisions. The advantage of the system evaluation concept lie in its ability to correct program errors at their earliest stages. Early direction and correction of ____________________ 12 Ibid. program implementation errors diminish the possibilities of incurring financial losses and unnecessary waste of efforts by the personnel implementing the program.  Therefore, assessing Project RISE, specially those having bearing on its accomplishments and innovations achieved by the teacher trainees in General  Science six year after might be a sound decision. This study is also supported by Bautista’s theory on evaluation, which shed light to the program design, assesses the implementation in terms of results of long effects. It is evaluation that provides timely and realistic feedback to the change agents, making the maximization of fiscal manpower resources possible. Programs are not evaluated attend to maintain a status quo to stagnate subsequently. One type of evaluation is the ex-post evaluation or impact evaluation. This is undertaken to determine whether the program or project merits expansion or replication in other areas and ascertain what aspects can be modified to improve implementation in other area. This study is then called an impact evaluation because it with try to assess the _________________  status of Project RISE teachers’ train on their overall performance as General Science Teachers. Carino’s theory, also sustains that accountability is a central problem of the government. The activities of civil servants and public agencies must follow the will of the people to whom they are ultimately responsible. The public ness of their employment and goals therefore prescribe their behavior and circumscribe their choice. Therefore, all individuals and office continue to have a range of options as to how they would act. The evaluation of whether such action would be within the bounds of their authority is referent to the concepts of accountability. Accountability focuses on the following: 1) regularity of fiscal transactions and the faithful compliance as well as adherence to legal requirements and administrative policies; 2) efficiency and economy in the use of public funds, prosperity manpower and other resources; 3) concerned with the results of government operation; 4) human resources accounting and the __________________  analogies of economics and social impacts of programs, and 5) emphasizes  procedures and methods operation and on the transformation of inputs to outputs.15 This study is an assessment of a project, which derives its finances from government funds, therefore projects implementers and all those involved in it are accountable to the people and the society. Another theory to support other variables identified in this study, such as attitudes and values of teachers, is that one advocated by Thorndike. The connectionist theory or the Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) theory. This view was based on the concept that bonds or connections are formed between situations and suppose. Thordike advocates the idea that learning results from translating sense impressions and impulses to action learning occurs through change in connection between particular stimulus and a response, hence, connections are the key to understanding a learning task. ___________________ 15 Carino, Ledevina, â€Å"Administrative Accountability: A Review of the Evolution, Meaning and Operationa-lization of a Key Concept in Public Administration). 16 Gregorio, Hernan, â€Å"Principles and Methods of Teaching†. In the same manner, the personal attitudes and values of the teachers may have much to do with their teaching effectiveness because they could be the basis for their behavior, decisions and choice. This is so because â€Å"values are deep-rooted motivations of behavior. They defined what is important to the individual.16 In this study, it may be stated that the attitudes and values of the General Science teachers will have bearing with their work as teachers. What they believe in and what they consider important will influence their decisions and choices. Conceptual Framework The framework for the evaluation process has three components: inputs, throughputs and outputs. A built-in-feedback mechanism is the place to  derived information for project revision or improvement. Following the evaluation process, the inputs of Project RISE in Region VIII in general and in the Division of Northern Samar in particular are the objective of the program, course content, participants, trainers, and training ___________________  procedures. The actual performance in the implementation of Project RISE will be expresses in terms the throughout or processes. These consists of the teachers’ attitude towards teaching General Science, the General Science content knowledge and skills, classroom management, time management, appropriateness of teaching strategies, skills in the utilization of instructional materials, and skills in maintaining classroom discussions and skill in motivating. It will also include the teachers’ teaching competencies in teaching General Science as perceived by the principles, the teachers’ own perceptions on how the Project RISE training improved the competencies as observes by their principles and the students’ performance in General science as measured by a test in General Science.

We Must Fight for Internet Freedom Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive T

We Must Fight for Internet Freedom Have you ever wished you could be a part of a movement that would change the world? To be part of a movement that made a positive difference on the world as a whole. I wanted to be that guy pounding a sledgehammer on the Berlin Wall, or the man blocking the path of the tank coming down the street in Tiananmen Square. These were symbols of brave people trying to make changes to the world in which they live. Here we had ordinary people caught up in a movement for Human Rights and were immortalized because of freedoms and rights we cherish. Through the freedom of the press and use of the Internet we can talk to people who were there. We can learn who, what, and why things are happening. Now that voice is being stifled. The Internet and Human Rights, two distinctive and separate things tied together by common thread of freedom is being smothered or controlled. Freedom of speech, Freedom of expression and Freedom of the press are under restraints. These are the same rights that our forefathers fought so hard to make part of our daily lives. We assume that other countries have similar rights. The Internet is being controlled by repressive regimes under the guise they are preventing their people from being exposed to bad influences. Governments are controlling the type of information by allowing only registered sites. The Internet Police are monitoring E-mail, when the citizens use the Internet to show how their governments are abusing basic Human Rights they are arrested. Repressive regimes are afraid; if the people they control should find out how the rest of the world enjoys freedom, they would not be in power for long. For instance, citizens in Turkey, Malaysia, ... ...ill be made. As the title stated, "You Were There," we all watched the news and waited to see what happened next in Berlin or China. People should not stand by and later wish they had taken part in this movement. People should unite and prevent governments from putting limits on our imaginations or our use of the Internet to express ourselves. We can be a part of a movement to keep the Internet unrestricted. Having a forum for all can really bring the world closer and unified in a common cause that all people have rights as humans. By joining groups like the H.R.W and the G.I.L.C. you can be made aware of what can be done to protect your rights and others. If people were allowed to communicate freely and unafraid of retribution, they would create a change no less that those men who knocked down the Berlin Wall, or stood as a roadblock to a tank.

Hip-hop in the South Bron Essay

Hip-hop surfaced in the South Bronx and the northeast areas of New York in the early and mid 1970s. Hip hop was so named because of its intrinsic beat. Its popularity began to increase exponentially in the 1980s (Bertram, 1999, p. 42). Hip Hop exists not only in a musical form. Hip-hop as it is known today also represents a style of dress, a distinct language, a particular perspective of viewing the world as well as an expressive form that reflects the feelings of a large section of youth who were born between 1965 and 1984 (Aidi, 2004, p. 108). The hip-hop culture consists of at four distinct elements. Disc jockeying (DJ-ing), break dancing, graffiti art, and rapping (emceeing) are the avenues whereby hip-hoppers represent the sentiments of hip-hop (Marshall, 2006, p. 50). The movement has evolved from the streets of the Bronx into a highly commercially musical form with associated mega-franchises repeating the benefits of its success. Hip hop artists feature prominent among Americas top radio stations and on MTV. Hip hop has therefore moved from just a locally specific form to contain an international following (Bertram, 1999, p. 2). Rap has emerged as the most commercially successful aspect of hip hop and it is primarily through this expressive medium that the hip-hop culture is proliferated globally (Bennett, 1999, p. 2). Rap delineates a style of vocal representation in which rhyming lyrics are vocalized or rapped to the undertones of a continuous beat. This ‘breakbeat’ is created by a DJ who utilizes a twin-turntable record deck and combines portions of vinyl records into new music. Scratching is also a defining characteristic of rap music. Here on record is scratched to the beat of another record by using the needle on the record deck (Bennett, 1999, p. 2). Among the rap groups that were prominent during the initial development of hip hop Bennett (1999) notes the Zulu Nation which was formed by Afrika Bambaataa, a former member of a street gang. Hip-hop has now become an avenue for minorities to express social and political sentiments and to speak out against repressive systems. American hip-hop emerged as a successor to the civil rights and black power movements which sought to empower blacks in a racially segregated society. The musical form arose out of an effort to redirect resentment among the youth of the South Bronx away from gang fighting. The hip-hop movement therefore is inherently antagonistic to oppressive systems. The musical aspect of rap has been observed to encourage violence (Gordon, 2005, p. 367) and, according to Aidi (2004) it also brings pathology and dysfunction (p. 110). Its structure therefore makes it an area of contention among political actors who dislike the often negative, anti-establishment messages that it presents. Because of rap music’s particularly ‘gangsta rap’ support and promotion of violence, it has become a serious issue of concern for the white middle and upper classes which feel the most targeted by its messages. Hip-hop necessarily speaks to inner-city blacks, Latino youth and even white living in the suburbs who themselves have felt the effects of oppressive capitalist system. Hip hop’s prominence as a cultural form arises from its ability to connect intimately with the experiences of African-American youth since hip hop is about lending a voice to the otherwise underrepresented black community. As Bennett (1999) observes, hip hop ‘has always been and remains directly connected with the streets from which it came’ (p. 2). However hip hop is not strictly an African-American cultural form even though it has tended to be discussed exclusively in these terms. As hip hop developed it has been adopted by sections of the white US underclass who identify with the messages that it presents. While acknowledging that the hip hop movement did indeed emerge within the inner cities of America, Bennett (1999) suggests that its cultural resonance is not authentic to the experiences of African Americans within the inner city of the United States. Its broader roots are grounded in the historical situation of Africans in the diaspora. Therefore it is suggested that the real roots of hip hop is in the enslavement of Africans between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. Even though the slave trade and slavery have long been abolished, blacks within Africa and former slave colonies, such as the West Indies, have continued to struggle against the capitalist regimes of Europe and now America. Blacks within these regions have been migrating into the UK and the US in order to escape political and religious persecution or to secure a better standard of living and better opportunities for themselves and their families (Bennett, 1999, p. 3). Hip hop, like other music forms, therefore represent an avenue whereby these individuals can communicate shared feelings through the message of music as well as encourage organization and mobilization. Within rap music, artistes attempt to undo the economic dependency of blacks and to speak out against cultural imperialism through the promotion of art forms that are distinctly Africa. Therefore it has become increasingly evident that hip hop no longer appeals solely to youth within the African-diaspora but it attracts youths from very diverse socio-cultural backgrounds (Bennett 1999, p. 4). Globalization of culture has facilitate the movement of the hip hop culture across national boundaries and has also caused the development of distinct local forms of this now international art form (Dennis, 2006, p. 271). Rap is believed to have arrived in Colombia in the 1980s soon after its upsurge in the US. This was possible because of the cross movement of Colombians into the United States. In Colombia hip hop has established its presence and popularity among the country’s urban youth. Devotees to rap are predominantly mestizos. Afro-Colombian rappers are changing traditional perceptions of ethnicity and race through the performance of music (Dennis, 2006, p. 271). Afro-Colombians identify with the oppressive feelings felt by African Americans and therefore rap music has a particular appeal for them. Most rappers are also from the lower socio-economic classes and many have lived under extreme poverty. Additionally in terms of education, many of the artistes that are attracted to hip hop within Colombia have not completed high school and none so far have had a university education (Dennis, 2006, p. 272). Youths within Colombia experience racial discrimination, particularly within urban centers where young black Colombians come into direct contact with the dominant culture and racist ideologies and behaviors (Dennis, 2006, p. 274). The music of rap has been reinterpreted within the Colombian scenario so as to emphasize the performers’ ethnic-racial identities as well as the cultural significance of their localities (Dennis, 2006, p. 271). Artistes have been mixing rap with Afro-Colombian folklore and other Latin American and Caribbean expressions such as salsa and reggae. They promote the rights of ethnic minorities and advocate their cultural, musical and racial identity. Like the Colombian masochistic views, rap in this country is also male-dominated. It becomes evident that the Colombian hip-hop culture generally maintains Western concepts of male roles. On the rap scene Afro-Colombian rappers promote leftist, anti-capitalist, and anti-globalization sentiments. Few deal with matters of race or examine the issue of racial discrimination within the Colombian context. Dennis (2006) observes that it is not till recently that a few Afro-Colombian rappers have been addressing racial concerns through music. Some black rappers in Colombia are now using rap to celebrate their ethnic and racial heritage and also pointing to racial discrimination. Within the UK particularly within Newcastle upon Tyne hip hop has attracted a white following. The area consists primarily of the white working class. There is a small population of Asian and Afro-Caribbean natives residing in the area but these groups have little or no impact on Newcastle’s cultural environment. A small hip hop-following community has emerged within Newcastle and a few outlying areas such as Gateshead, Blythe and Cramlington but it is equally of little general cultural impact. Hip hop in Newcastle has an essential whiteness to it (Bennett, 1999, p. 6). Black conscious sentiments are echoed here. The followers, though not personally affected by the same oppressive issues as blacks, find intimate connections with the concept of blackness echoed by hip hop music. Its themes are also of relevance to the white working class community. These followers do not believe that hip hop can be understood only in terms of the African-American context. They therefore try to represent hip hop as a medium through with they can express their views on issues by which they are affected on a daily basis. They embrace the view, therefore, that hip hop music is able to identify with the experiences of the white working class youth in Newcastle (Bennett, 1999, p. 10). Newcastle hip hoppers have developed a form of self-styled local hip hop. Hip hop is therefore being modified by the youths in Newcastle so that it becomes a more localize mode of expression so that it resounds with the nature of their own particular local circumstances (Bennett, 1999, p. 15). Within the Czech Republic the adaptation of hip hop is primarily an underground movement. This movement is influenced by dissatisfaction with the local drug culture. Hip hop in the Czech Republic is therefore quite distinct from the American form. Hip hoppers here oppose the flashy ‘bling-bling’ emphasis of the western form. It rather represents a mixture of foreign and local elements but which is distinctly unique. Only three of the four forms of hip hop have been successfully adapted and manipulated within the Czech Republic. Break-dancing is probably the most popular but spraying and rapping are also practiced. DJ-ing has not been possible because of the absence of the necessary technology. Furthermore the Czech form of hip hop necessarily preaches a different message because the majority of Czech youth do not understand the language used in American rap, even if they study English in school (Bertram, 2003, p. 42). This barrier has therefore resulted in hip hop within the Czech Republic developing, according to Bertram (2003), a different soul. Even in Jamaica, the home of reggae, hip hop has had a significant amount of influence (Marshall, 2006, p. 49). Dancehall music, a variant of reggae, is said to have developed based on the strong hip hop influence on the country’s music. REFERENCES Aidi, H. (2004, Jul-Dec). Verily, there is only one hip-hop umma: Islam, cultural protest and urban marginality. Socialism & Democracy, 18(2), 107-126. Bennett, A. (1999, Feb). Rappin’ on the Tyne: white hip hop culture in Northeast England: an ethnographic study. Sociological Review, 47(1), 1-25. Bertram, D. (2003, Spring). Czech hip Republic hop. New Presence: The Prague Journal of Central European Affairs, 5(1), 42-43. Dennis, C. (2006). Afro-Colombian Hip-Hop: Globalization, popular music and ethnic identities. Studies in Latin American Popular Culture, 25(271-295). Gordon, L. (2005, Oct-Dec). The problem of maturity in hip hop. Review of Education, Pedagogy & Cultural Studies, 27(4), 367-389. Marshall, W. (2006, Mar/Jun ). Bling-bling for Rastafari: How Jamaicans deal with hip-hop. Social & Economic Studies, 55(1 & 2), 49-74.

Biography of Douglas MacArthur, 5-Star American General

Douglas MacArthur (January 26, 1880–April 5, 1964) was a soldier in World War I, the senior commander in the Pacific theater during World War II, and the Commander-in-Chief of the United Nations Command during the Korean War. He retired as a highly-decorated five-star general, although fairly ignominiously relieved of his duty by President Harry S. Truman on April 11, 1951. Fast Facts: Douglas MacArthur Known For: American 5-Star General, United States military leader in World War II and Korean WarBorn: January 26, 1880 in Little Rock, ArkansasParents: Captain Arthur MacArthur, Jr. and Mary Pinkney HardyDied: April 5, 1964 at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MarylandEducation: West Texas Military Academy, West Point.Published Works: Reminiscences, Duty, Honor, CountryAwards and Honors: Medal of Honor, Silver Star, Bronze Star, Distinguished Service Cross, many othersSpouse(s): Louise Cromwell Brooks (1922–1929); Jean Faircloth (1937–1962)Children: Arthur MacArthur IVNotable Quote: Old soldiers never die, they just fade away. Early Life The youngest of three sons, Douglas MacArthur was born at Little Rock, Arkansas, on January 26, 1880. His parents were then-Captain Arthur MacArthur, Jr. (who had served in the Civil War on the Union side) and his wife Mary Pinkney Hardy. Douglas spent much of his early life moving around the American West as his fathers postings changed. Learning to ride and shoot at an early age, MacArthur received his early education at the Force Public School in Washington, D.C. and later at the West Texas Military Academy. Eager to follow in his father into the military, MacArthur began seeking an appointment to West Point. After two attempts by his father and grandfather to secure a presidential appointment failed, he passed an appointment examine offered by Representative Theobald Otjen. West Point Entering West Point in 1899, MacArthur and Ulysses Grant III became the subjects of intense hazing as the sons of high-ranking officers and for the fact that their mothers were lodging at the nearby Cranys Hotel. Though called before a Congressional committee on hazing, MacArthur downplayed his own experiences rather than implicate other cadets. The hearing resulted in Congress banning hazing of any sort in 1901. An outstanding student, he held several leadership positions within the Corps of Cadets including First Captain in his final year at the academy. Graduating in 1903, MacArthur ranked first in his 93-man class. Upon leaving West Point, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant and assigned to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Early Career Ordered to the Philippines, MacArthur supervised several construction projects in the islands. After brief service as Chief Engineer for the Division of the Pacific in 1905, he accompanied his father, now a major general, on a tour of the Far East and India. Attending the Engineer School in 1906, he moved through several domestic engineering posts before being promoted to captain in 1911. Following the sudden death of his father in 1912, MacArthur requested a transfer to Washington, D.C. to aid in caring for his ailing mother. This was granted and he was posted to the Office of the Chief of Staff. In early 1914, following heightened tensions with Mexico, President Woodrow Wilson directed U.S. forces to occupy Veracruz. Dispatched south as part of a headquarters staff, MacArthur arrived on May 1. Finding that an advance from the city would require the use of a railroad, he set out with a small party to locate locomotives. Finding several in Alvarado, MacArthur and his men were forced to fight their way back to the American lines. Successfully delivering the locomotives, his name was put forward by Chief of Staff Major General Leonard Wood for the Medal of Honor. Though the commander in Veracruz, Brigadier General Frederick Funston, recommended the award, the board tasked with making the determination declined to issue the medal citing that the operation had occurred without the knowledge of the commanding general. They also cited concerns that making the award would encourage staff officers in the future to conduct operations without alerting their superiors. World War I Returning to Washington, MacArthur received a promotion to major on December 11, 1915, and the following year was assigned to the Office of Information. With the U.S. entry into World War I in April 1917, MacArthur helped form the 42nd Rainbow Division from existing National Guard units. Intended to build morale, the units of the 42nd were intentionally drawn from as many states as possible. In discussing the concept, MacArthur commented that the membership in the division will stretch over the whole country like a rainbow. With the formation of the 42nd Division, MacArthur was promoted to colonel and made its chief of staff. Sailing for France with the division in October 1917, he earned his first Silver Star when he accompanied a French trench raid the following February. On March 9, MacArthur joined a trench raid conducted by the 42nd. Moving forward with the 168th Infantry Regiment, his leadership earned him a Distinguished Service Cross. On June 26, 1918, MacArthur was promoted to brigadier general becoming the youngest general in the American Expeditionary Force. During the Second Battle of the Marne that July and August, he earned three more Silver Stars and was given command of the 84th Infantry Brigade. Taking part in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel in September, MacArthur was awarded two additional Silver Stars for his leadership during the battle and subsequent operations. Shifted north, the 42nd Division joined the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in mid-October. Attacking near Chà ¢tillon, MacArthur was wounded while scouting a gap in the German barbed wire. Though again nominated for the Medal of Honor for his part in the action, he was denied a second time and instead awarded a second Distinguished Service Cross. Quickly recovering, MacArthur led his brigade through the final campaigns of the war. After briefly commanding the 42nd Division, he saw occupation duty in the Rhineland before returning to the United States in April 1919. West Point While the majority of U.S. Army officers were returned to their peacetime ranks, MacArthur was able to retain his wartime rank of brigadier general by accepting an appointment as Superintendent of West Point. Directed to reform the schools aging academic program, he took over in June 1919. Remaining in the position until 1922, he made great strides in modernizing the academic course, reducing hazing, formalizing the honor code, and increasing the athletic program. Though many of his changes were resisted, they ultimately were accepted. Marriage and Family Douglas MacArthur married twice. His first wife was Henriette Louise Cromwell Brooks, a divorcee and flapper who liked gin, jazz, and the stock market, none of which suited MacArthur. They were married on February 14, 1922, separated in 1925, and divorced on June 18, 1929. He met Jean Marie Faircloth in 1935, and despite that Douglas was 19 years older than she was, they married on April 30, 1937. They had one son, Arthur MacArthur IV, born in Manila in 1938. Peacetime Assignments Leaving the academy in October 1922, MacArthur took command of the Military District of Manila. During his time in the Philippines, he befriended several influential Filipinos, such as Manuel L. Quezon, and sought to reform the military establishment in the islands. On January 17, 1925, he was promoted to major general. After brief service in Atlanta, he moved north in 1925 to take command of III Corps Area with his headquarters at Baltimore, Maryland. While overseeing III Corps, he was compelled to serve on the court-martial of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell. The youngest on the panel, he claimed to have voted to acquit the aviation pioneer and called the requirement to serve one of the most distasteful orders I ever received. Chief of Staff After another two-year assignment in the Philippines, MacArthur returned to the United States in 1930 and briefly commanded IX Corps Area in San Francisco. Despite his relatively young age, his name was put forward for the position of Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army. Approved, he was sworn in that November. As the Great Depression worsened, MacArthur fought to prevent crippling cuts in the Armys manpower—although he was ultimately forced to close more than 50 bases. In addition to working to modernize and update the Armys war plans, he concluded the MacArthur-Pratt agreement with the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral William V. Pratt, which helped define each services responsibilities in regard to aviation. One of the best-known generals in the U.S. Army, MacArthurs reputation suffered in 1932 when President Herbert Hoover ordered him to clear the Bonus Army from an encampment at Anacostia Flats. Veterans from World War I, the Bonus Army marchers were seeking early payment of their military bonuses. Against the advice of his aide, Major Dwight D. Eisenhower, MacArthur accompanied the troops as they drove off the marchers and burned their camp. Though political opposites, MacArthur had his term as Chief of Staff extended by the newly-elected President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Under MacArthurs leadership, the U.S. Army played a key role in overseeing the Civilian Conservation Corps. Back to the Philippines Completing his time as Chief of Staff in late 1935, MacArthur was invited by now-President of the Philippines Manuel Quezon to oversee the formation of the Philippine Army. Made a field marshal of the Commonwealth of the Philippines he remained in the U.S. Army as the Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines. Arriving, MacArthur and Eisenhower were forced to essentially start from scratch while using cast off and obsolete American equipment. Relentlessly lobbying for more money and equipment, his calls were largely ignored in Washington. In 1937, MacArthur retired from the U.S. Army but remained in place as an advisor to Quezon. Two years later, Eisenhower returned to the United States and was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Richard Sutherland as MacArthurs chief of staff. World War II Begins With tensions with Japan growing, Roosevelt recalled MacArthur to active duty as commander, U.S. Army Forces in the Far East in July 1941 and federalized the Philippine Army. In an attempt to bolster the Philippines defenses, additional troops and material were dispatched later that year. At 3:30 a.m. on December 8, MacArthur learned of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Around 12:30 p.m., much of MacArthurs air force was destroyed when the Japanese struck Clark and Iba Fields outside Manila. When the Japanese landed at Lingayen Gulf on December 21, MacArthurs forces attempted to slow their advance but to no avail. Implementing prewar plans, Allied forces withdrew from Manila and formed a defensive line on the Bataan Peninsula. As fighting raged on Bataan, MacArthur established his headquarters on the fortress island of Corregidor in Manila Bay. Directing the fighting from an underground tunnel on Corregidor, he was derisively nicknamed Dugout Doug. As the situation on Bataan deteriorated, MacArthur received orders from Roosevelt to leave the Philippines and escape to Australia. Initially refusing, he was convinced by Sutherland to go. Departing Corregidor on the night of March 12, 1942, MacArthur and his family traveled by PT boat and B-17 before reaching Darwin, Australia five days later. Traveling south, he famously broadcast to the people of the Philippines that I shall return. For his defense of the Philippines, Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall had MacArthur awarded the Medal of Honor. New Guinea Appointed Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in the Southwest Pacific Area on April 18, MacArthur established his headquarters first at Melbourne and then at Brisbane, Australia. Largely served by his staff from the Philippines, dubbed the Bataan Gang, MacArthur began planning operations against the Japanese on New Guinea. Initially commanding largely Australian forces, MacArthur oversaw successful operations at Milne Bay, Buna-Gona, and Wau in 1942 and early 1943. Following a victory at the Battle of the Bismarck Sea in March 1943, MacArthur planned a major offensive against the Japanese bases at Salamaua and Lae. This attack was to be part of Operation Cartwheel, an Allied strategy for isolating the Japanese base at Rabaul. Moving forward in April 1943, Allied forces captured both towns by mid-September. Later operations saw MacArthurs troops land at Hollandia and Aitape in April 1944. While fighting continued on New Guinea for the rest of the war, it became a secondary theater as MacArthur and SWPA shifted its attention to planning the invasion of the Philippines. Return to the Philippines Meeting with President Roosevelt and Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, in mid-1944, MacArthur outlined his ideas for liberating the Philippines. Operations in the Philippines commenced on October 20, 1944, when MacArthur oversaw Allied landings on the island of Leyte. Coming ashore, he announced, People of the Philippines: I have returned. While Admiral William Bull Halsey and Allied naval forces fought the Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 23-26), MacArthur found the campaign ashore slow going. Battling heavy monsoons, Allied troops fought on Leyte until the end of the year. In early December, MacArthur directed the invasion of Mindoro, which was quickly occupied by Allied forces. On December 18, 1944, MacArthur was promoted to General of the Army. This occurred one day before Nimitz was raised to Fleet Admiral, making MacArthur the senior commander in the Pacific. Pressing forward, he opened the invasion of Luzon on January 9, 1945, by landing elements of the Sixth Army at Lingayen Gulf. Driving southeast toward Manila, MacArthur supported the Sixth Army with landings by the Eighth Army to the south. Reaching the capital, the Battle for Manila began in early February and lasted until March 3. For his part in liberating Manila, MacArthur was awarded a third Distinguished Service Cross. Though fighting continued on Luzon, MacArthur began operations to liberate the southern Philippines in February. Between February and July, 52 landings took place as Eighth Army forces moved through the archipelago. To the southwest, MacArthur commenced a campaign in May that saw his Australian forces attack Japanese positions in Borneo. Occupation of Japan As planning commenced for the invasion of Japan, MacArthurs name was informally discussed as for the role of overall commander of the operation. This proved moot when Japan surrendered in August 1945 following the dropping of the atomic bombs and the Soviet Unions declaration of war. Following this action, MacArthur was appointed Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP) in Japan on August 29 and charged with directing the occupation of the country. On September 2, 1945, MacArthur oversaw the signing of the instrument of surrender aboard USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. Over the next four years, MacArthur and his staff worked to rebuild the country, reform its government, and implement large-scale business and land reforms. Handing over power to the new Japanese government in 1949, MacArthur remained in place in his military role. The Korean War On June 25, 1950, North Korea attacked South Korea beginning the Korean War. Immediately condemning the North Korean aggression, the new United Nations authorized a military force to be formed to aid South Korea. It also directed the U.S. government to select the forces commander-in-chief. Meeting, the Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously chose to appoint MacArthur as Commander-in-Chief of the United Nations Command. Commanding from the Dai Ichi Life Insurance Building in Tokyo, he immediately began directing aid to South Korea and ordered Lieutenant General Walton Walkers Eighth Army to Korea. Pushed back by the North Koreans, the South Koreans and the lead elements of the Eighth Army were forced into a tight defensive position dubbed the Pusan Perimeter. As Walker was steadily reinforced, the crisis began to lessen and MacArthur began planning offensive operations against the North Koreans. With the bulk of the North Korean Army engaged around Pusan, MacArthur advocated for a daring amphibious strike on the peninsulas west coast at Inchon. This, he argued, would catch the enemy off guard, while landing UN troops close to the capital at Seoul and placing them in a position to cut the North Koreans supply lines. Many were initially skeptical of MacArthurs plan as Inchons harbor possessed a narrow approach channel, strong current, and wildly fluctuating tides. Moving forward on September 15, the landings at Inchon were a great success. Driving toward Seoul, UN troops captured the city on September 25. The landings, in conjunction with an offensive by Walker, sent the North Koreans reeling back over the 38th Parallel. As UN forces entered into North Korea, the Peoples Republic of China issued a warning that it would enter the war if MacArthurs troops reached the Yalu River. Meeting with President Harry S. Truman on Wake Island in October, MacArthur dismissed the Chinese threat and stated he hoped to have U.S. forces home by Christmas. In late October, Chinese forces flooded across the border and began driving UN troops south. Unable to halt the Chinese, UN troops were not able to stabilize the front until they had retreated south of Seoul. With his reputation tarnished, MacArthur directed a counter-offensive in early 1951 which saw Seoul liberated in March and UN troops again cross the 38th Parallel. Having publicly clashed with Truman over war policy earlier, MacArthur demanded that China admit defeat on March 24, preempting a White House ceasefire proposal. This was followed on April 5 by Representative Joseph Martin, Jr. revealing a letter from MacArthur that was highly critical of Trumans limited war approach to Korea. Meeting with his advisors, Truman relieved MacArthur on April 11 and replaced him with General Matthew Ridgway. Death and Legacy MacArthurs firing was met with a firestorm of controversy in the United States. Returning home, he was hailed as a hero and given ticker tape parades in San Francisco and New York. Between these events, he addressed Congress on April 19 and famously stated that old soldiers never die; they just fade away. Though a favorite for the 1952 Republican presidential nomination, MacArthur had no political aspirations. His popularity also fell slightly when a Congressional investigation backed Truman for firing him making him less a less attractive candidate. Retiring to New York City with his wife Jean, MacArthur worked in business and wrote his memoirs. Consulted by President John F. Kennedy in 1961, he warned against a military buildup in Vietnam. MacArthur died in Walter Reed National Military Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland on April 5, 1964, and, following a state funeral, was buried at the MacArthur Memorial in Norfolk, Virginia.